Academic adaptation: Mediating the relationship between intercultural sensitivity and life satisfaction in international postgraduate students in China

Intercultural sensitivity and life satisfaction

During the transition from ethnocentrism to ethno-relativism, individuals predominantly rely on intercultural communication rather than independent existence (Bennett, 1986). Intercultural sensitivity, defined as "the essential capability for navigating across cultural environments, encompassing the understanding of potential behavioral differences, maintaining an open attitude toward cultural diversity, and actively adjusting one's behaviors to accommodate actual cultural variations" (Bhawuk & Brislin, 1992), serves as a critical competency for cultural adaptation. International students possessing this competency demonstrate a greater willingness to respect cultural differences and modify their behaviors after recognizing and comprehending these variations (Hammer et al., 2003). Life satisfaction constitutes an individual's subjective appraisal of goal attainment (Nilsson, 2015) and overall quality of life based on self-selected criteria (Diener et al., 1985). For international postgraduate students, it specifically represents their "subjective perception of satisfaction within the new sociocultural environment" (Jiang et al., 2020).

While existing research has seldom examined the direct relationship between intercultural sensitivity and life satisfaction among international postgraduate students, studies have established that international students' life satisfaction is closely associated with their intercultural adaptation in a host country (Zhang & Goodson, 2011). As intercultural adaptation represents the primary challenge for international students (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), successful adaptation becomes crucial for enhancing life satisfaction. Given that intercultural sensitivity serves as the predominant factor influencing adaptation outcomes—with higher sensitivity correlating with better adaptation (Chen & Starosta, 2000)—these findings collectively suggest a strong positive relationship between intercultural sensitivity and life satisfaction.

Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis—H1: International postgraduate students' intercultural sensitivity positively predicts their life satisfaction.

Intercultural sensitivity and academic adaptation

Academic adaptation constitutes a multidimensional adjustment process wherein international students modify their behaviors and cognitions to achieve academic success in foreign educational systems (Baker & Siryk, 1984; Kaur, 2007). This construct encompasses three core competencies: (1) navigating discipline-specific learning requirements, (2) adapting to host-country pedagogical approaches (Ballard, 1987), and (3) maintaining optimal motivation and performance standards (Rienties et al., 2012). As empirically established by Ward et al. (2001), academic adaptation is the strongest predictor of degree completion.

Tinto's (1975) longitudinal model of institutional departure posits that universities comprise two interdependent systems: the academic system, which requires integration through intellectual development and achievement, and the social system, which requires integration through interpersonal relationships and campus engagement. Failure to achieve integration in either system may result in attrition or psychological distress (Zhu, 2011). Thus, complete academic adaptation necessitates successful navigation of both systems. Effective academic adaptation requires more than academic achievement; it demands successful social integration within a university community. Intercultural sensitivity is a critical facilitator in this process, as demonstrated by Laurosana's (2018) study of Indonesian students, which revealed a significant positive correlation between intercultural sensitivity and academic adaptation outcomes.

Based on this theoretical and empirical foundation, we propose the following hypothesis—H2: International postgraduate students' intercultural sensitivity positively predicts their academic adaptation.

Academic adaptation and life satisfaction

Academic culture shock represents a significant challenge confronting most international students when transitioning to educational environments that diverge from their prior academic experiences (Sovic, 2008). This phenomenon, conceptually defined as the dissonance between higher education systems in students' countries of origin and their host institutions (Gilbert, 2000), manifests primarily through challenges in several key dimensions of the academic environment: linguistic communication, pedagogical approaches, assessment methodologies, and student-instructor dynamics (Li et al., 2010).

Within the Chinese higher education context, international students encounter particularly salient adaptation difficulties. Empirical research has documented initial challenges in comprehending English-medium instruction delivered by Chinese faculty members, with reported difficulties including accented pronunciation, limited lexical range, and imprecise academic discourse (Tian & Lu, 2018). Furthermore, students frequently exhibit suboptimal learning behaviors, including inadequate preparatory study, passive classroom engagement, and difficulties integrating knowledge, all of which contribute to diminished academic experiences (Su, 2019). At the postgraduate level, these challenges intensify, with scholars identifying significant obstacles in research comprehension, limited access to faculty mentorship, and an unclear understanding of degree requirements (Hussain & Shen, 2019). Crucially, the extant literature demonstrates a robust positive correlation between successful academic adaptation and measurable educational outcomes (Rienties et al., 2012), underscoring the importance of overcoming academic culture shock.

This emphasis on academic challenges aligns with Furnham and Bochner's (1982) seminal assertion regarding international students' primary identification as scholars rather than cultural outsiders. Successful navigation of academic adaptation challenges constitutes a fundamental determinant of overseas study outcomes. Importantly, academic adaptation emerges as a critical predictor variable in models of international student life satisfaction, with longitudinal studies consistently demonstrating that enhanced adaptation correlates with elevated subjective well-being measures.

Based on this theoretical and empirical foundation, we propose the following hypothesis—H3: International postgraduate students' academic adaptation positively predicts their life satisfaction.

Mediating role of academic adaptation

Empirical evidence suggests that the dual pressures of academic demands and sociocultural adjustment in cross-border educational contexts exert significant negative effects on international students' life satisfaction (Lardier et al., 2020). Academic adaptation emerges as a robust predictor of life satisfaction, with longitudinal studies demonstrating that students who successfully integrate into host institutions through academic engagement, peer interactions, and extracurricular participation exhibit both higher graduation rates and enhanced psychological well-being (Severiens & Wolff, 2008).

The failure to achieve adequate academic adaptation generates substantial psychological distress among international students. Maladaptive responses to academic challenges frequently precipitate perceptions of existential futility regarding overseas study, ultimately diminishing overall life satisfaction (Luzio-lockett, 1998). For international postgraduate students at Chinese universities, successful academic adaptation hinges on four key dimensions (Zhu et al., 2023): (1) understanding and adapting to local academic conventions, (2) actively managing academic culture shock, (3) effectively handling coursework and supervisory dynamics, and (4) cultivating discipline-specific research capabilities. This adaptive process enables international postgraduate students to achieve their academic goals and improve their life satisfaction in China.

In summary, intercultural sensitivity serves as a key antecedent of international postgraduate students' academic adaptation, while life satisfaction represents a significant outcome. Enhancing intercultural sensitivity facilitates successful academic adaptation, which in turn promotes higher life satisfaction. Prior research confirms that academic adaptation mediates the relationship between intercultural sensitivity (independent variable) and life satisfaction (dependent variable).

Based on this theoretical and empirical foundation, we propose the following hypothesis—H4: Academic adaptation mediates the effect of intercultural sensitivity on international postgraduate students' life satisfaction.

Sample

A cluster random sampling of 517 international postgraduate students from four Chinese universities (two universities in Zhejiang and one each in Shanghai and Chongqing) was recruited. The inclusion criteria were as follows: international postgraduate students studying in mainland China for a master's or doctoral degree, who have studied in China for at least one semester, and who can read and understand English. All questionnaires were returned. However, 73 of the students were eliminated from the sample due to incomplete responses, leaving a total sample of 444 subjects. Hence, the collection rate was 85.9%.

Measures

International postgraduate students' intercultural sensitivity was assessed using the revised five-point Likert-type intercultural sensitivity scale (Wang & Zhou, 2016). Researchers developed an 11-item Academic Adaptation Scale to assess international postgraduate students' adjustment in China, structured into three dimensions: (1) course learning (e.g., "completing course assignments on time"), (2) research training (e.g., "employing appropriate research methods to conduct research"), and (3) academic communication (e.g., "attending academic exchange activities (e.g., conferences, salons, and forums").

The scale was informed by prior instruments, including Dunn's (2006) 53-item U.S.-focused adaptation scale and Wen et al.'s (2014) survey of institutional support and interpersonal dynamics. After the initial design, the English-language questionnaire was refined via interviews with four international postgraduate students and expert consultations. Key revisions included adding a research methods item, consolidating overlapping academic communication items, and improving terminology (e.g., from "classroom teachers" to "course instructors"). The final scale consisted of 11 items measured on a five-point Likert-type scale (from 1 = "Extremely difficult" to 5 = "No difficulty"). Higher scores indicated fewer academic adaptation challenges, reflecting better academic adaptation among international postgraduate students in China.

The final measurement model demonstrated acceptable fit indices (χ²/df = 1.522, goodness-of fit index [GFI] = 0.933, root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.072), with all incremental fit indices (comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.936, incremental fit index [IFI] = 0.939) exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.90. The scale's reliability (Cronbach's α = 0.776) satisfied DeVellis's standards for research instruments. The life satisfaction variables were measured using Diener et al.'s (1985) seven-point Likert-type Satisfaction with Life Scale. The entire questionnaire was translated from English to Chinese and then back-translated to English by two independent bilingual scholars to ensure translation quality and guarantee equivalence of meaning (Brislin, 1970).

Control variables

Prior research has demonstrated that gender, age, degree level, overseas experience, and medium of instruction may influence international postgraduate students' academic adaptation (Quan et al., 2016; Rienties et al., 2012; G. H. Zhu, 2011; J. N. Zhu, 2012). Consequently, these variables were included as controls in the analysis. Female students and individuals with higher stress levels experience more physical symptoms and stress-related behaviors, potentially reducing life satisfaction (Zhang & Goodson, 2011). This necessitates controlling for gender to isolate its distinct effects. Similarly, older students tend to utilize more adaptive coping strategies, such as problem-solving, cognitive restructuring, and emotional expression, which may impact their academic adaptation and life satisfaction abroad (Monteiro et al., 2014), warranting age control to account for developmental and experiential differences. Additionally, since language proficiency correlates positively with intercultural sensitivity (Ng et al., 2025) and 67.1% of participants were enrolled in English-taught programs, controlling for the medium of instruction was essential to minimize its confounding influence on academic and sociocultural outcomes. Multicollinearity diagnostics using variance inflation factors (VIFs) confirmed no concerning collinearity, with all values below 2.0—well under the conventional threshold of 5.0.

Data analysis strategy

To test the hypothesized model, structural equation modeling (SEM) with analysis of moment structure (AMOS) 24.0 was used in this study. The researchers adopted Anderson and Gerbing's (1988) two-step strategy to test the hypothesized model. First, the measurement model was confirmed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and then an SEM analysis was performed to measure the fit and path coefficients of the hypothesized model. The chi-square (χ²) value, degrees of freedom (df), the value of χ²/df, standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), RMSEA, CFI, and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) were adopted to estimate the model fit. This study followed the recommended reference values of these indices by Hu and Bentler (1999) and Browne and Cudeck (1992): χ²/df ratio (desirable if less than 2), SRMR (best if close to 0.08 or less), RMSEA (best if close to 0.06 or less), CFI (best if greater than 0.95), and TLI (best if greater than 0.95).

Preliminary analyses

Table 1 shows the means, standard deviations, reliabilities, and correlations of the variables. Intercultural sensitivity was positively related to academic adaptation (r = 0.380, P < 0.01) and life satisfaction (r = 0.437, P < 0.01). Academic adaptation was positively related to life satisfaction (r = 0.439, P < 0.01).

A CFA analysis of the three constructs of intercultural sensitivity, academic adaptation, and life satisfaction was performed to measure the internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity of the constructs in the proposed model. As shown in Table 2, the results revealed that the composite reliability (CR) of each construct ranged from 0.86 to 0.96, exceeding the 0.60 CR threshold value, indicating internal consistency reliability (Bagozzi & Yi, 1989; Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Meanwhile, the factor loadings of the individual items in the three-factor model were all significant (all P < 0.001), giving preliminary evidence for the convergent validity of the measurement model. Also, the average variance extracted (AVE) of all constructs ranged from 0.55 to 0.72, exceeding the 0.50 AVE threshold value (Bagozzi & Yi, 1989; Fornell & Larcker, 1981), and the convergent validity was acceptable. Table 1 shows that the estimated interrelations among all constructs were less than the square roots of the AVE in each construct; thus, discriminant validity was preliminarily supported (Dunn, 2006).

Overall, the measurement model in this study indicated a good model-data fit: χ²/df = 1.906, SRMR = 0.065, RMSEA = 0.045, CFI = 0.952, TLI = 0.947. All the model-fit indices exceeded their respective acceptance levels, and all factor loadings of the observed indicators on the latent variables were significant at the level of P < 0.001. It can be concluded that the three-factor model (i.e., the proposed model) is the best way to examine the distinct characteristics of the three constructs considered in this study.

Structural model

The structural modeling results indicate that the hypothesized model fits the data well. Following Baron and Kenny (1986), the researchers used a causal steps strategy to examine the first condition of mediation in relation to Hypothesis 1. Table 1 shows the correlation coefficients revealed that intercultural sensitivity was positively and significantly related to life satisfaction (r = 0.437, P < 0.01) as well as positively and significantly related to academic adaptation (r = 0.380, P < 0.01). Meanwhile, the results of the direct effect of intercultural sensitivity on life satisfaction (standardized direct effect = 0.35, P < 0.01; Figure 1) and the direct effect of intercultural sensitivity on academic adaptation (standardized direct effect = 0.57, P < 0.01) were both statistically significant. Thus, Hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported.

Figure 1. Structural equation modeling of the hypothesized model. AA, academic adaptation; LS, life satisfaction; IS, intercultural sensitivity.

The results in Table 1 indicate that academic adaptation was positively and significantly related to life satisfaction (r = 0.439, P = 0.01), and the results of the direct effect of academic adaptation on life satisfaction (standardized direct effect = 0.38, P = 0.01). Thus, the direct effect of academic adaptation on life satisfaction was also statistically significant. To assess mediation effects, the researcher employed bootstrapping techniques with 1000 samples, calculating both bias-corrected and standard percentile bootstrap confidence intervals (95% CI) to determine the statistical significance of indirect effects between variables. The indirect effect is statistically significant at the 0.05 level if the CI does not include zero (Shrout & Bolger, 2002). The researchers calculated the indirect effect among variables by multiplying 1000 estimates of the path coefficients from intercultural sensitivity to life satisfaction via the mediation of academic adaptation.

Table 3 indicates that the 95% CI for the indirect effect did not include zero, and the results of the bootstrap test confirmed the existence of a positive and significant mediating effect for academic adaptation between intercultural sensitivity and life satisfaction; thus, Hypothesis 3 is supported. Furthermore, as the direct effect of intercultural sensitivity on life satisfaction was still significant (P < 0.01), the relationship of intercultural sensitivity to life satisfaction was partially mediated by academic adaptation.

The intercultural sensitivity of international postgraduate students in China positively predicts their life satisfaction and academic adaptation

Statistical analyses confirm that intercultural sensitivity significantly predicts both life satisfaction and academic adaptation among international postgraduate students in China. This positive correlation indicates that enhanced intercultural sensitivity corresponds to improved academic adaptation and life satisfaction. These findings align with Sarwari et al.'s (2017) study of 108 international postgraduate students in Malaysia, which established that intercultural sensitivity facilitates communicative competence, thereby enhancing cross-cultural interactions and life satisfaction.

Cultural shock represents an inevitable phase in the adaptation process (Kluckhohn, 1951; Oberg, 1960). Seminal work characterizes this experience as involving the loss of familiar cultural reference points, creating significant adjustment challenges regardless of individual predispositions. Successful adaptation requires a three-fold process: cognitive recognition of cultural differences, affective acceptance of cultural diversity, and behavioral modification to align with host cultural norms. As Mulvey (2020) demonstrated, host-country cultural values actively shape international students' cognitive frameworks and behavioral patterns.

Within this context, intercultural sensitivity emerges as a critical competency that facilitates the navigation of cultural discontinuities, mediates cross-cultural interactions, and promotes psychosocial adjustment. Therefore, the development of intercultural sensitivity serves as a crucial mechanism for enhancing both the academic adaptation and life satisfaction of international postgraduate students in China. Institutional support programs aimed at cultivating this competency could significantly improve student outcomes across multiple domains.

The academic adaptation of international postgraduate students in China plays a part in mediating effects

The statistical analysis revealed that intercultural sensitivity influences international postgraduate students' life satisfaction via two pathways: a direct effect and an indirect effect mediated by academic adaptation. This mediation mechanism indicates that heightened intercultural sensitivity facilitates academic adjustment, which in turn enhances life satisfaction. These findings position academic adaptation as a critical psychological process that enables students to transform cross-cultural awareness into improved well-being.

This study highlights academic adaptation's central role in international graduate education. The conceptual dropout model suggests that successful academic adaptation protects against attrition while accelerating adjustment to host-country academia. Supporting evidence shows that academic stressors can undermine motivation and satisfaction (Lardier et al., 2020), with adaptation difficulties potentially triggering profound distress (Luzio-lockett, 1998). The "academic culture shock" concept (Gilbert, 2000) encapsulates these challenges, manifesting across language barriers, pedagogical differences, assessment methods, and student-teacher dynamics (Li et al., 2010). When students develop competencies to recognize and adapt to these differences, they mitigate culture shock, facilitating smoother transitions and greater satisfaction.

Given the demonstrated importance of academic adaptation, Chinese universities should improve international postgraduate students' educational experiences in China by enhancing intercultural competence and academic support mechanisms. First, a prearrival digital acculturation program should be developed, featuring mandatory online modules that cover discipline-specific research ethics guidelines and introduce Chinese academic norms. Subsequently, this digital preparation should be complemented by structured onboarding support upon arrival, including intercultural orientation workshops and academic expectation seminars.

More importantly, universities need to establish a dual-channel mentoring program that pairs each international postgraduate with both an academic mentor and a cultural navigator. Faculty academic mentors would provide regular progress reviews using standardized rubrics while facilitating research integration through co-publication opportunities. Simultaneously, cultural navigators—typically senior international postgraduate students—would offer practical guidance on institutional systems, such as course registration, and help bridge connections with domestic research teams. This integrated approach addresses adaptation challenges at multiple levels, from initial preparation through ongoing academic and cultural support.

Research limitations

While this study provides valuable insights into the relationship between intercultural sensitivity, academic adaptation, and life satisfaction among international postgraduate students in China, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, despite our adequate sample size (n = 444), geographic limitations to universities in Zhejiang, Shanghai, and Chongqing restrict generalizability, particularly to inland or less economically developed regions of China. Second, while we examined the multidimensional constructs of intercultural sensitivity and academic adaptation, the analysis was restricted to exploring basic relationships rather than employing more complex statistical approaches, such as multiple linear regression. Third, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences and cannot capture the dynamic nature of adaptation processes over time—an area that warrants longitudinal investigation. Fourth, our focus on academic factors means that we did not account for other potential determinants of life satisfaction (e.g., financial circumstances, social integration, or living conditions) that future research should consider. These limitations highlight important directions for more comprehensive future studies while contextualizing the interpretation of our current findings.