Exploring the path for vocational teacher training in China's high-quality development era: Based on Germany's practice

Outdated professional standards for vocational education teachers

The professional development of vocational education teachers is essential for the high-quality advancement of vocational education and the sustainable growth of the teachers themselves. Due to the distinct nature of vocational education, vocational education teachers must possess a mix of "academic, technical, and pedagogical" skills and strong adaptability to various roles (Du & Wu, 2020). This necessitates strict requirements for professional standards and entry thresholds for vocational education teachers. Currently, vocational schools in China lack standardized entry procedures, resulting in inconsistent teacher quality (Tang & Shi, 2012). According to the National Vocational School Teacher Survey Report, 54.2% of secondary vocational education teachers and 48.4% of higher vocational education teachers do not have any work experience related to the subjects they teach (Chen & Feng, 2024). This situation primarily arises because many vocational education teachers are recent graduates who lack the necessary industry experience and have little pedagogical training. While these teachers may fulfill theoretical knowledge requirements, their skills in practical training often fall short of real-world demands (Ren, 2023). Given the complex professional backgrounds in vocational schools, teacher standards must be targeted more. Presently, existing professional standards only apply to secondary vocational education teachers, lacking criteria for higher vocational education teacher's qualifications and professional title assessments. Additionally, the lack of a clear certification system leads to insufficient scientific and long-term planning for cultivating and training higher vocational education teachers (Shao & Xu, 2016).

Inadequate training systems for vocational education teachers

To align with industry trends and talent development needs, vocational education teacher training must involve three systematic processes: professional knowledge acquisition, practical experience, and specialized teacher training. However, a significant gap exists between the current training system and vocational education teachers' professional development needs, which fails to equip future teachers with essential skills (Liu & Sang, 2024). First, vocational education teacher training content is overly theoretical and conceptual, lacking practicality and operability, making it difficult for teachers to master necessary technical skills effectively (Zong, 2023). Second, the absence of dedicated institutions for pre-service teacher training in higher vocational education leads to various weaknesses in educational skills, practical skills, and professional knowledge structure (Shao & Xu, 2016). Third, vocational schools do not prioritize post-service teacher training, resulting in insufficient training programs. Currently, post-service training is mainly lecture-based, lacking specialized, cutting-edge, and practical courses, which contradicts the advocated "learning by doing" teaching philosophy and fails to provide concrete work-based learning models (Xu, 2016). Moreover, digital literacy training programs fail to consider the characteristics of vocational education and the professional growth of teachers, making them inadequate in meeting diverse and individualized teacher needs (Wang et al., 2023). This lack of targeted training reduces learning motivation, leading to low utilization of digital teaching resources (Ding et al., 2024). In pre-service or in-service training, the vocational education teacher training system remains insufficiently comprehensive, failing to provide individualized training based on teachers' needs. This results in low resource utilization and limited professional growth among teachers.

Unscientific evaluation and incentive systems for vocational education teachers

The evaluation, promotion, social status, and compensation of vocational education teachers significantly impact the profession's attractiveness and the overall quality of the vocational education teacher workforce (Zhang, 2018). Evaluation outcomes serve as measures of teaching quality, while positive and negative incentives act as catalysts for teacher improvement. However, the current evaluation system for vocational education teachers is outdated, with a singular evaluation approach focusing more on outcomes than processes (Zhou, 2014). The evaluation criteria for teachers primarily emphasize the quantity and quality of published papers and research projects rather than teaching effectiveness (Xie, 2015). A unified evaluation metric is applied across different disciplines, ignoring the distinct characteristics of various specialties, which diminishes the value of evaluations, delays the impact of incentives, and reduces teachers' motivation for self-improvement (Chen et al., 2020).

The conflict between cultivating high-quality skilled personnel and developing a high-quality vocational education teacher workforce in China urgently requires further resolution to meet the demand for highly qualified talent during the current social transformation period.

The leading teacher training practices in vocational education in Germany

According to the Federal Republic of Germany's Vocational Education Act, vocational education in Germany is divided into two systems: school education and non-school education. The German dual system model of vocational education belongs to the primary vocational education stage of the vocational school education system. The so-called "dual system" refers to a mode of training in which enterprises recognized by the qualification standards of the Federal Act on Vocational Education and vocational schools work together to train students. Under the dual system, students receive vocationally relevant specialized theoretical and general cultural education knowledge. On the other hand, they undergo on-site training on the theoretical knowledge acquired at the enterprise. The school and the enterprise fulfill their respective roles as two different study places (Bourichter et al., 2009). The dual system's goal is rooted in local industrial roots and philosophical concepts, contributing to a social concept emphasizing vocational education in Germany (Li, 2024).

The development process of dual-system vocational education has resulted in the formation of "dual" vocational education teachers, which is mainly reflected in the duality of teacher structure and the duality of teacher quality. First, the dual teacher structure refers to the vocational school teachers and enterprise trainers. Vocational school teachers undergo theoretical teaching according to the teaching plan to cultivate students' systematic theoretical knowledge and ability; corporate trainers train according to the training program to develop students' practical ability. In the dual system model, both vocational teachers and corporate trainers complete the teaching task in their respective roles and jointly. Second, the quality of teachers is dual, and both vocational school teachers and corporate trainers must meet the requirements of teaching knowledge, methods, and ability. Regarding qualifications, vocational school teachers should have a solid theoretical foundation and skillful practical skills: First, a certain degree to ensure that the teachers have a profound basic theoretical knowledge; second, mastery of vocational education teaching ability, vocational education teacher education, and completion of the required period of educational internship; third, a certain degree of vocational practical experience and the relevant professional work experience. Corporate trainers are excellent employees, engineers, or senior technicians from the enterprises, and they need to have more than three years of professional practical experience. In terms of education, the trainer should also have completed a specific type of vocational education and obtained a vocational qualification certificate, received vocational training in the same professional direction, and passed the corresponding exams (such as exams organized by industry associations) to obtain the training qualification certificate. At the same time, corporate trainers must master the ways and means of vocational education and teaching and have specific educational and learning capabilities to be competent in the practical teaching of young students (Xie, 2019). Teacher training in vocational education in Germany places great emphasis on academic education, practical skills, educational technology, professionalism, and interdisciplinary competence (Table 1; Chu, 2016; Dieter, 2020; Tang & Wei, 2023; Xu & Zhou, 2024).

In addition to the traditional training mode of "national examination for VET teachers", some universities in Germany have innovatively developed a new mode of "Master of Vocational Education", which abolishes the first national examination system, and graduating with a master's degree equals passing the first national examination (Wang & Cao, 2024). Germany has established a lifelong teacher training system through an integrated approach to teacher development, from pre-service training paths tailored to different specialties to in-service professional development that occurs every two years (Wu & Wang, 2023). With strict entry standards, diverse training content, and advanced academic training levels, the quality of vocational teacher education is ensured, providing strong support for the cultivation of high-quality personnel.

Advantages and excellent practice of teacher training in vocational education in Germany

Digital technology empowers teachers to enhance professionalism

The widespread adoption of digital technology in teaching and practice has led nations to recognize the significance of digital skills innovation and to explore digital development strategies aligned with national growth. Teachers play a vital role in the application and dissemination of digital technology in schools, with increasing demands on their digital literacy and proficiency in innovative technologies. However, some studies question the type of teaching behavior—from teaching to mentoring and tutoring (Köhler & Kahnwald, 2005; Riedel et al., 2020). In addition, authors asked in their research whether a teacher is still needed. After the release of the Artificial Intelligence Strategy (Strategie Künstliche Intelligenz der Bundesregierung) in 2018, Germany has implemented a series of measures to promote the development of digitalization in the field of education, such as increasing the development of AI degree programs and talent cultivation, promoting industry-academia-research cooperation and the transformation of achievements in the field of AI, increasing financial support for and investment in AI, and strengthening international scientific research cooperation in AI (Chen, 2021).

In 2024, Germany introduced the Artificial Intelligence Action Plan and issued action recommendations for the use of AI in schools. These action recommendations provide a comprehensive explanation of core issues such as the impact of AI on learning and didactics, transformation of the examination system, professionalization of teachers, the construction of legal and regulatory frameworks, and the promotion of equal opportunities. The action recommendations offer a guiding framework for the practical application of AI in the field of education and reflect a consensus among the states on how to effectively respond to the application of AI in school education (Bildungs-MK, 2024).

First, Germany has established professional standards for teachers' digital competencies, which serve as a foundation for teacher training programs. These standards clarify the expectations for teachers' digital literacy, and the country has released guidelines specifically targeting the digital skills of vocational education teachers. In addition, a framework of digital competence standards for teachers has been developed, outlining a professional development path for educators in the digital age. This framework is structured around six key competency areas: searching, processing, and storing information; communication and collaboration; problem-solving and action; production and presentation; protection and safe action; and analysis and reflection. These areas aim to foster independent learning, maturity, identity-building, and autonomous participation in the digital society. The framework also emphasizes the interconnectedness of digital skills within specific disciplinary contexts, integrating core literacy requirements across various academic disciplines in the digital world (Wu & Wang, 2023). The publication of this framework has better planned the professional development path for teachers in the digital era.

Second, Germany has enhanced its digital training system for teachers, focusing on improving their ability to utilize digital tools effectively. A curriculum supporting teachers' digital literacy has been established, incorporating digital skills training into pedagogy and professional courses for teacher trainees. To ensure balanced development across federal states and comparability of university teacher education programs, the federal government has introduced a catalog of evaluation criteria. This catalog outlines the key aspects of digital transformation in university teaching, such as learning objectives, scientific integration, and the use of digital media and organizational forms. It also highlights best practices in the digital transformation of teacher education, helping to standardize and enhance digital strategies across the federal states. Moreover, the German government has increased funding for digital teacher training and offers regular refresher courses that integrate digital technology into education and teaching. For example, the German Ministry of Economics, Labor, and Housing in Baden-Württemberg has established smart learning factories in vocational schools to help teachers use digital facilities in real work environments. These approaches promote the development of teachers' digital competencies (Lernfabrik 4.0., 2024).

A well-developed quality evaluation and incentive system

A robust evaluation system is central to assessing the quality of teachers' work and achieving teaching objectives, while an effective incentive system provides feedback on teacher performance and encourages further professional development. The integration of sound evaluation and incentive mechanisms creates a sustainable loop of educational activities. Vocational education teachers in Germany obtain better social welfare and higher social status, which helps attract more individuals to the profession and alleviates the shortage of teachers to a certain extent.

Germany has established a quality evaluation system for teacher training that aims at professional development, employs total quality management as a means, and emphasizes collaborative cooperation. This system comprehensively constructs quality indicators for the development of vocational teachers from aspects including legal regulations and policies for teacher training, resource investment, training objectives and tasks, quality standards for training, responsibilities of training institutions, qualification examinations, and capability assessments (Shen & Zhou, 2016). In conjunction with this framework, the government has successfully incentivized the development and improvement of VET teachers. To encourage the growth of VET teachers, a specialized management team has been set up to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of teacher training in terms of comprehensiveness, staffing, and process. An appraisal is conducted every two years, and qualified teachers are eligible for promotion. At the same time, Germany provides financial incentives to ensure stable workplace learning opportunities for vocational teacher trainees. For instance, Germany offers financial subsidies to companies that have been impacted by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) crisis yet have managed to maintain a stable number of apprentices, with a subsidy of €2000 for each apprenticeship contract. For insolvent companies that still take on apprentices for training, the subsidy amount is €3000 (Yu & Bo, 2021).

Strengthening the top-level design of laws related to vocational education teachers

Establishing and improving the legal status of vocational education teachers is essential for building a high-quality teaching workforce. It is also key to elevating the social status of vocational education teachers. In developed countries, laws and regulations on vocational education are often detailed and comprehensive, covering everything from teacher training to school-enterprise cooperation. This specialization promotes the sustainable development of vocational education teachers. However, China's current laws related to vocational education teachers lack systematic normative guidance and a robust legal framework. Therefore, China should focus on top-level legislative design, clearly defining teachers' rights and responsibilities, ensuring legal protections, and enhancing legal support for the development of vocational education teachers. This will impact not only the professional growth of vocational education teachers but also the profession's attractiveness to the public.

Strictly regulating the admission system and criteria for vocational education teacher qualifications

China faces the significant challenge of building a team of highly qualified and specialized vocational education teachers. An effective teacher training system must combine teacher education with the process of obtaining teaching qualifications (Xu, 2016). As the main force in cultivating the nation's high-tech and skilled personnel, vocational education teachers must be professionally certified in their competency levels. Therefore, the state should establish unified professional standards for vocational education teachers' competencies and rigorous guidelines for obtaining qualification certificates. Lagging qualification standards often lead to the neglect of teacher development. The process of obtaining vocational education teacher qualifications should not rely on a one-time assessment. China can learn from international experiences by emphasizing teacher training and setting restrictions that ensure teachers are fully prepared before obtaining certification. This includes raising the qualification thresholds and creating differentiated standards for teachers in various professional fields, which would eliminate the current practice of "entering the profession first and certifying later". Furthermore, the "lifelong system" of qualification certificates should be abolished, requiring periodic reviews and renewals to stimulate teachers' professional development.

Improving the VET teacher training system and linking career development

Building a high-quality teaching force capable of meeting the demands of the modern era requires a standardized and systematic teacher training system. This system is vital for ensuring a steady flow of qualified teachers and supporting their professional development. Currently, vocational education training in China is primarily conducted through projects issued by the education administration department. The project-based training system has continuously developed the professional development of vocational education teachers, but there are also some constraining problems. First, developing teachers' abilities requires long-term systematic cultivation, which a few lectures and training cannot improve. While the project-based system has contributed to the professional development of vocational education teachers, several limitations remain. First, the development of teachers' abilities requires long-term, systematic cultivation, which cannot be achieved through short-term lectures and training. Second, project-based training does not guarantee that all teachers receive the same training, leading to uneven resource distribution. Finally, compared to school-based programs, project-based courses often lack systematic implementation and institutional support. Given the international experience in solving this kind of problem, China should undertake a unified national plan to provide long-term, consistent training before and after teachers enter the profession. Systematic training courses should be organized to address the temporary and fragmented nature of the current system, ensuring that the courses are standardized, comprehensive, and tailored to meet the basic needs of teachers in education and teaching, the formation of teachers' education and teaching, and the development of a systematic training program (Liu & Sang, 2024). A pre-vocational and post-vocational integrated training system would foster the sustainable development of a high-quality vocational education teacher team.

Accelerating digital transformation in hardware and software and enhancing teachers' digital literacy

The rapid development of AI has significantly accelerated changes in knowledge structure, the pace of knowledge updates, and technological iterations, requiring vocational education teachers to continually expand their professional skills. The advancements in digital technology have broadened teachers' instructional scope, enabling pedagogical methods and tools to better integrate emerging technologies. Consequently, vocational education teachers need to continuously build digital competencies, including theoretical knowledge, practical skills, and technical proficiency, to effectively navigate the digital transformation within their field. However, in China, vocational education lacks standardized digital skills certification and a comprehensive digital skills training system. Thus, establishing clear and robust digital certification standards, enhancing the digital skills training framework, and building a supportive digital teaching resource platform are all essential for supporting teachers' professional development. First, relevant policies and reference standards for digital literacy should be refined to guide teachers in addressing their digital literacy gaps systematically, ultimately enhancing their overall digital proficiency. Second, government bodies should allocate increased funding for digital transformation initiatives and for the necessary hardware and software upgrades, thus providing foundational support for teachers' digital skills acquisition. Furthermore, schools, government agencies, and other stakeholders should collaborate to integrate educational resources, creating digital lifelong learning platforms to address the unique learning needs of vocational education teachers across various specialties. Finally, digital literacy assessment tools are vital for helping teachers accurately evaluate their skill levels. Developing such tools, aligned with established digital literacy standards, will further elevate teachers' digital competencies (Yan & Liu, 2022). Additionally, schools should not only provide teachers with ongoing training in AI literacy but also offer practical teaching reform opportunities, giving teachers valuable experience in applying these technologies in classroom settings. Practical applications in this area can be further explored, such as leveraging the cross-regional nature of digital platforms to enhance international teacher exchanges and cooperation, thereby promoting the digital transformation of teachers' careers. Additionally, policies aimed at encouraging teachers to integrate AI technology into their teaching practices and fostering a digital culture can effectively cultivate teachers' digital literacy and teaching competencies in vocational colleges and universities.

Improving the evaluation system and incentive mechanism for vocational education teachers and stimulating internal motivation for teacher development

Teacher remuneration is, to some extent, a reflection of institutional recognition of teachers' contributions. Improving the salary incentive system and linking evaluation outcomes to compensation can raise teachers' living standards and simultaneously enhance their motivation to perform better. To achieve this, more targeted performance evaluation standards must be established (Xie, 2015). Vocational schools should develop a diversified evaluation system tailored to their unique characteristics, with differentiated evaluation criteria and methods based on teachers' subject areas and roles. Personalized evaluation outcomes can help teachers identify areas for improvement and encourage them to take initiative in their professional development and career planning. Evaluation standards for vocational education teachers should comprehensively address all aspects of their responsibilities, not only focusing on teaching and research outcomes but also considering the entire teaching process. This will facilitate a more holistic and systematic evaluation, creating greater opportunities for vocational education teachers to enhance both their teaching abilities and scientific research levels. Reforming the evaluation system will strengthen teachers' perceptions of fairness in salary distribution, further motivating them to improve their work performance. Additionally, government incentive policies for vocational colleges and teachers play a crucial role. As vocational education serves as a training ground for high-tech and skilled talent, it imposes higher demands on teachers' professional skills. Government policies can effectively attract professionals with technical expertise from industry to engage in teaching and training students. This will, in turn, help optimize the structure of the teaching workforce, creating a group of vocational educators with complementary knowledge and skills. By promoting deeper integration between industry and education and fostering closer school-enterprise collaboration, the synergistic effect of these partnerships can be maximized.