Decolonizing skills formation and TVET in the Global South: A re-exploration of frameworks, governance, and digital futures

INTRODUCTION

Over the past few decades, the education system across the world has undergone many changes resulting from worldwide economic, technological, and cultural shifts. As the global landscape transforms, the Global South is seeing an expansion of learning opportunities alongside deepening structural inequalities, especially in skills formation and technical and vocational education and training (TVET). The legacy of colonial rule and subsequent neoliberal reforms has shaped Southern TVET systems, often creating a reliance on foreign models at the cost of local relevance. Nevertheless, these systems are increasingly becoming laboratories of innovation in digital learning, regional cooperation, and decolonial pedagogy, potentially changing the relationship between knowledge and work.

This paper proposes a four-dimensional framework—knowing, doing, being, and feeling—to re-examine the processes of decolonizing skill formation in the Global South. Within this framework, "knowing" refers to a critical awareness of global inequalities in technical education; "doing" emphasizes institutional autonomy and work-based learning; "being" emphasizes identity, ethics, and professional purpose; and "feeling" highlights solidarity, social justice, and the affective dimensions of skill development.

This paper aims to understand the rationale behind Global South countries' reclamation of epistemic sovereignty in vocational and technical education. It explores frameworks that can ensure equitable access to digital training and vocational education. Moreover, it investigates the ways in which regional cooperation can promote the mutual recognition of qualifications. By seeking answers to these questions, this paper contributes to an emerging discourse that reconceives TVET not so much as training but as a transformative, culturally located, and technologically savvy system that can empower Southern societies and rebalance global knowledge hierarchies.

RESEARCH BACKGROUND

LITERATURE REVIEW

Over the past two decades, research on education in the Global South has gained momentum, focusing on themes of expansion, inequality, and epistemic justice. While higher education has received considerable attention, the TVET sector, which directly shapes skill formation, remains under-theorized. Emerging studies indicate that the central challenge for Southern TVET systems is not merely access or enrollment but structural inequities in quality, governance, and epistemic recognition. This body of literature underscores the "Knowing" dimension of TVET, emphasizing how the production, recognition, and governance of knowledge fundamentally shape skill development and determine which epistemologies are prioritized in Southern contexts.

According to UNESCO (2021, 2023), participation in postsecondary and vocational education in Asia, Africa, and Latin America has increased significantly. However, this growth has been uneven. Emerging economies such as China and Brazil have invested heavily in TVET infrastructure and digital skills, whereas many African and South Asian countries struggle with underfunded institutions, outdated curricula, and limited industry partnerships. According to the Financing for Sustainable Development Report 2023 by the United Nations Interagency Task Force on Financing for Development, disparities in financing for sustainable development have widened, development framework highlights the impact of financing on addressing low-income sectors related to energy, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and climate.

In recent years, a number of researchers have argued that neoliberal reforms have transformed TVET globally into a market-driven system focused on competitiveness, employability, and performance measurement, often at the expense of public responsibility and social inclusion (Shahjahan, 2016; Tikly, 2004). This trend has privileged private providers and donor-driven agendas, marginalizing local knowledge, community learning, and traditional craft-based skill systems. In Southern African contexts, UNESCO has played a decisive role in shaping TVET governance and curricular orientations, often reinforcing global policy models and standardized frameworks aligned with international labor market demands (Preckler Galguera, 2018). In addition, TVET policies in South Africa have been critically examined through a Freirean lens, highlighting the importance of career empowerment and pedagogical approaches that address structural inequalities (Majola, 2025). Researchers, such as Altbach and de Wit (2020), have suggested that Southern systems are often encouraged to mimic Northern standards, leading to dependency and the erosion of local models for skills development. Recent scholarship also emphasizes the need to rethink vocational education and training beyond formal structures, promoting sustainable approaches that are contextually grounded and responsive to local social and economic realities (McGrath & Russon, 2023).

Simultaneously, the literature documents an ongoing digital transformation in vocational learning literature. Digital TVET is reshaping skill acquisition and certification through simulators, open learning platforms, micro-credentials, and virtual laboratories (Mhlanga & Moloi, 2020;Selwyn, 2013). However, persistent digital inequalities hinder full participation in the knowledge economy. Furthermore, digital platforms themselves may carry neo-colonial norms, such as Western-designed software and English-language dominance, which can reinforce existing hierarchies. Without improved teacher capacity, culturally relevant pedagogy, and efforts to bridge the digital divide, these gaps may widen.

Within the "Doing" dimension, the literature highlights the translation of knowledge into practice through practical skill formation, hands-on training, and the use of digital technologies. It also demonstrates how access to these tools mediates the effectiveness and equity of vocational learning.

A truly decolonial digital TVET approach would integrate local knowledge, support multilingual learning, and align skill formation with community-based practices. Another significant area of literature concerns regional qualification frameworks and mobility. The African Continental Qualifications Framework, the ASEAN TVET Council, and the Latin American Skills Network promote cross-border recognition of skills and qualifications, facilitating workforce mobility and regional cooperation (Knight, 2013a). More and more countries in the Global South are showing greater commitment to South-South collaboration and the localization of global standards in ways relevant to their cultures and economies.

In addition, decolonial scholars such as Connell (2007) and Mignolo (2009) emphasize that TVET reform must extend beyond technical efficiency and economic productivity to encompass epistemic sovereignty—the right of societies to determine what knowledge and skills are valuable. Integrating Indigenous and feminist perspectives into vocational curricula can make learning fairer and better adapted to the real world. The "Being" dimension reflects the development of professional and cultural identity within TVET, encompassing epistemic sovereignty, recognition of local knowledge, and the cultivation of practitioners' ethical and social responsibilities. Consequently, decolonizing TVET can foster transformative justice and cultural affirmation in the Global South beyond the classroom, creating more inclusive development opportunities.

The COVID-19 pandemic reshaped educational inequalities, particularly concerning digitalization. While the pandemic accelerated the global transition to online and blended learning, it also exposed weaknesses and profound digital divides within and between nations. A recent study (Allais, 2023) suggests that several African and South Asian TVET institutions may lack the digital infrastructure, educator capacity, and digital literacy needed to adapt their training and assessment systems effectively, and that digital skills development opportunities for TVET trainers in Sub-Saharan Africa remain restricted. As noted by a number of studies, technology can either mitigate or exacerbate educational inequalities, depending on resource distribution, policies, and governance mechanisms. The "Feeling" dimension captures the affective and value-based aspects of learning, highlighting learner engagement, motivation, and the role of culturally responsive pedagogies in fostering inclusion, empowerment, and community-centered education.

The discourse on "decolonization" and "epistemic justice", once prominent mainly in higher education, has now become equally vital for vocational and technical education. Decolonizing TVET involves challenging Western-defined "quality" standards and refocusing Indigenous knowledge, community-based practices, and culturally embedded forms of skill transmission. UNESCO's (2023) report, Global Education Decolonisation and the Global South, underscored that locally grounded education systems must recognize communities and their cultural relevance as engines of creativity and innovation.

The future of TVET in the Global South can thus be viewed as twofold: It demonstrates quick quantitative growth in terms of enrollment and digital participation, yet it is hampered by persistent qualitative and structural inequalities in governance, access, and technology. The central challenge ahead is to achieve massification without marginalization—ensuring that expansion is coupled with quality, cultural integrity, and relevance.

Moreover, regional and collaborative initiatives in TVET have been emphasized as critical for building institutional capacities and fostering context-specific innovations that are relevant to local economies and social realities (UNESCO, 2021). South-South cooperation in research, policymaking, and professional mobility plays a vital role in TVET development. Regional partnerships and collaborative digital platforms can strengthen institutional capacities and foster context-specific innovations relevant to the local economy and social realities.

Ultimately, the literature suggests that decolonizing skills formation involves more than curriculum reform or funding redistribution; it is also about achieving intellectual and technological sovereignty. The TVET systems of the Global South must become self-driven enterprises of development, equity, and knowledge creation.

METHODOLOGY

This study applies a qualitative-analytical documentary approach to examine TVET dynamics in the Global South. The research process is informed by a critical-constructivist lens that considers knowledge production and skills formation to be historically and politically situated, shaped by a global, neocolonial legacy linked to neoliberal reforms and local epistemologies. A qualitative documentary approach facilitates the comparison of policies, governance frameworks, and reform trajectories across the South without the constraints of primary fieldwork.

The study deliberately draws on a broad corpus of relevant, credible, and representative documents and statistical reports, including publications from UNESCO, the International Labour Organisation, the World Bank, and other international and regional agencies. We acknowledge that documents from major international organizations may reflect Northern-centric perspectives. To mitigate this potential bias, we triangulated these sources with regional documents, national policies, and academic literature that reflect local contexts, thereby ensuring a more balanced and contextually relevant analysis. It also analyzes national TVET policy documents, strategic frameworks, regional initiatives on qualification frameworks and skill mobility, and peer-reviewed academic literature on vocational education, digitalization, and decolonial theory. Documents were deliberately selected from diverse regions, including Africa, Latin America, South and Southeast Asia, and the Middle East.

The analysis covers the 2010-2024 period, the post-pandemic timeframe marked by accelerated reform, globalization, neoliberal restructuring, and digitalization. Earlier theoretical contributions were integrated where relevant to maintain conceptual continuity.

Data interpretation involved thematic coding analysis. Documents were read repeatedly, and ideas were coded both deductively, using the study's theoretical lens of knowing, doing, being, and feeling, and inductively, to allow new themes to emerge. Major themes identified included governance and financing, university-industry partnerships, digital transformation, regional qualification frameworks, and epistemic sovereignty. The researchers then analyzed different types of documents, such as policies, statistics, and academic studies, to identify similarities and differences between their findings. Context was added to the qualitative findings using relevant descriptive indicators, such as enrollment trends, government expenditure ratios, and digital infrastructure.

As a documentary and interpretative study, this research does not employ inferential statistics. The researchers maintained reflexivity regarding their positionality and the diverse cultural contexts of Southern education systems. The intention was not to generalize across all countries but to identify common structural conditions while acknowledging the diversity of responses. The analysis was validated through the verification of credible sources.

This methodological approach allows for a critical and context-sensitive analysis of TVET systems in the Global South. By combining qualitative documentary analysis with a theoretical lens of Knowing, Doing, Being, and Feeling, the study not only examines policies, governance, and financing but also interprets their interactions with cultural, social, and digital transformations. This approach provides a nuanced understanding of structural conditions, epistemic sovereignty, and opportunities for equitable, locally relevant skill development, highlighting the strengths and limitations of Southern TVET systems in ways that would not be achievable through purely quantitative methods or primary fieldwork alone.

RESEARCH FINDINGS

The analysis reveals systemic inequalities in access, quality, and financing for TVET among developing countries. While many Southern countries have reformed their vocational education systems to meet market demands, progress toward equitable and sustainable skills development has been slow. Between 2010 and 2023, key indicators (enrollment rates, institutional capacity, and public investment) progressed at different rates across regions.

In South Africa, participation in postsecondary and vocational education among young adults has expanded significantly over the past decade. While this represents increased access, significant inequality persists, disproportionately affecting poorer populations. Government expenditure on education increased from approximately 5.5% to nearly 6.8% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) over a decade, yet inconsistent governance and uneven institutional performance limited the developmental impact of this increased investment. In Egypt, the public TVET system struggles with obsolete courses, inadequate equipment, and limited employer engagement, with TVET spending remaining at only 4% of GDP—insufficient to address infrastructure deficits and attract quality teachers.

In India, the proportion of youth enrolled in TVET grew from approximately 9% in 2010 to nearly 15% by 2023, driven by demographic growth and policy reform. The Skill India Mission (or National Skill Development Mission) aimed to improve coordination, but gaps in implementation still exist, particularly in rural and informal economies. Brazil, which previously advanced technical education through programs like SENAI and PRONATEC, has experienced a slowdown since 2020 due to economic contraction and reduced public expenditure.

China has distinguished itself through massive investment in TVET, significantly improving quality and employability via dual-system education and digital TVET initiatives. Nevertheless, a gap persists between well-resourced coastal provinces and inland regions with limited access and technological readiness. Public sector spending on TVET is likely 4% of GDP, comparable to other countries in the developing world, but it is supplemented by private sector participation and additional funding from local governments.

In summary, while the Global South has made noticeable strides in the growth of vocational education, the benefits have not been evenly distributed. Differences in financing, governance efficiency, and digital preparedness continue to create divergent reform pathways. Sustaining improvements in TVET requires more than funding. To ensure that skills development is geared toward inclusive growth and epistemic justice in various Southern contexts, integrated governance frameworks, regional cooperation, and digital innovation must be ensured.

The findings (Table 1) indicate that increased funding for TVET across the Global South does not automatically lead to improved education or equitable access. Beyond a certain point, additional spending may yield diminishing returns without efficient governance, coordination, and quality assurance. Despite marked improvements in enrollment, unequal skill outcomes, institutional performance, and employment linkages show that funding alone cannot drive a transformation.

South Africa's large-scale investment around 6.8% of GDP (World Bank, 2023) in vocational education reflects ambition but is coupled with inconsistency. In contrast, Egypt has steadily improved, with stable but modest funding levels, since a steady stream of reforms has enhanced institutional reliability. This suggests that well-designed policies and systemic reforms may yield more sustainable outcomes than short-term funding increases alone.

The findings underscore that the Global South requires structural reform to complement its financial expansion. Investment effectiveness depends on strategic allocation—for teacher training, digital infrastructure, and industry partnerships. Reallocating budgets among schools to address specific needs can enhance equity and quality more effectively than simply expanding overall expenditure. Transparent, accountable, and participatory governance is crucial to prevent wasteful spending in the education sector.

The analysis concludes that passive or unchanged education systems will exacerbate inequalities amid technological, economic, and demographic changes. TVET reform in the Global South therefore requires a shift from funding-driven models to capability-driven systems. A better TVET system depends not on spending more but on spending wisely and equitably to empower creators, teachers, and communities.

These funding and governance challenges directly relate to the four-pillar framework. Limited financial resources and inconsistent policies restrict "Knowing" by reducing access to high-quality educational content and up-to-date training materials. Insufficient support for practical learning and industry engagement impedes "Doing" as learners cannot fully develop the skills required in the labor market. Weak institutional governance undermines "Being" limiting the development of professional identity and confidence among teachers and students. Finally, the absence of inclusive decision-making and community engagement diminishes "Feeling" reducing solidarity, trust, and a sense of belonging within TVET systems.

By explicitly connecting these macro-level observations to the dimensions of Knowing, Doing, Being, and Feeling, the study highlights that reform efforts must go beyond financial inputs, focusing instead on structural, cultural, and relational capacities to achieve equitable, contextually relevant, and transformative skill development in the Global South.

HISTORICAL-POLITICAL PHASES OF TVET IN THE GLOBAL SOUTH

DISCUSSION

This analysis affirms that higher education in the Global South is a complex domain characterized by both transformative potential and persistent obstacles rooted in colonial history. Following independence, nations across Africa, Asia, and Latin America expanded their higher education systems to drive nation-building, skill formation, and cultural renewal. Governments invested heavily in public institutions to strengthen Indigenous knowledge systems, promote cultural sovereignty, and build human capital for modernization. According to UNESCO, the increase in enrollment rates across the Global South over the last decade represents a notable policy achievement and growing social demand.

Yet, this expansion has been profoundly uneven. Chronic resource shortages, weak infrastructure, and reliance on Eurocentric institutional models have often weakened autonomy and strengthened epistemic dependence. Imported systems frequently constrain local innovation. During the 1980s, the IMF and World Bank imposed neoliberal structural adjustment programs that exacerbated these issues by promoting privatization, austerity, and marketization. While sometimes improving efficiency, these measures often eroded equity, limited academic freedom, and subjected universities to a global competitiveness framework. Many Southern governments currently allocate only 1%-2% of their GDP to higher education, reflecting an ongoing tension between aspirations for global competitiveness and the imperative of local relevance.

In response, a new wave of regional cooperation and integration is emerging. Initiatives like Pan-African University, the ASEAN University Network, and ENLACES represent efforts to build independent educational ecosystems characterized by mutual recognition, common standards, and knowledge solidarity. These initiatives aim to facilitate South-South exchange and joint research. In addition, establishing a just social contract in education requires protecting the interests of vulnerable groups through enhanced university capacities and social accountability frameworks.

This transformation is powered by decolonized research. Universities must generate new knowledge that serves their communities and cultures rather than merely replicating imported curricula. Scholars such as Mignolo, Santos, and Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2013) have argued that asserting epistemic sovereignty is essential to ending structural injustice, contending that higher education should foster liberation rather than dependency in students. Integrating TVET into this framework is vital for connecting theory with practice, ensuring employability, and maintaining social relevance.

The findings indicate that meaningful educational change requires the alignment of knowledge production, institutional governance, and cultural affirmation. National governments play a crucial role in building scientific infrastructure, expanding digital connectivity, and creating funding mechanisms. Curricular and pedagogical transformation for inclusive growth must be accompanied by investments in laboratories, teacher training, and equitable access to technology, particularly for disabled and marginalized learners.

Viewing these dynamics through the Four-Pillar Framework clarifies the deeper dimensions of change. "Knowing" entails a critical understanding of the historical, hierarchical, and systemic dependency relations that shape Southern education. "Doing" focuses on implementing reforms in governance, funding, and inter-institutional collaboration to foster education autonomy. "Being" involves affirming an epistemic identity and institutional self-confidence that enable universities and TVET centers to be producers of knowledge. "Feeling" shapes the ethical and emotional bases of education, cultivating the solidarity, empathy, and practice of justice necessary for transformative learning.

Moving forward requires not only restructuring but also a shift in values and thinking. Southern higher education can only reach its full potential when aligned with the pursuit of social and cultural justice. Through strategic growth, deeper collaboration, and pedagogical innovation, Southern universities and colleges can become co-designers of the global order rather than sidelined participants. This study, by integrating empirical evidence with theoretical reflection, demonstrates that the Global South's higher education is not only catching up but is actively redefining the meaning of education for a pluralistic, just, and interconnected world.

CONCLUSION

The next decade will witness a profound transformation of higher education systems in the Global South, driven by multiple forces—historical, economic, cultural, and technological. The South is no longer on the periphery but is increasingly at the center of intellectual contestation, cultural renewal, and structural change. This study identified both emerging and persistent blockages, underscoring the continued struggle for epistemic agency. Addressing these challenges requires a firm commitment to institutional autonomy and educational justice.

Across Africa, Asia, and Latin America, higher education discourse has been shaped by competing colonial legacies, post-independence nation-building, and neoliberal globalization. While massification and modernization have expanded access, they have also reproduced structural inequities and epistemic subordination, often through donor-driven policies and imported evaluative frameworks. This has created a defining paradox for Southern systems: Growth without autonomy.

However, recent changes suggest that a shift is underway. Regional cooperation, decolonial movements, and digital transformation programs are fostering renewed attention to knowledge sovereignty, cultural recognition, and epistemic justice. Universities and TVET institutions in the South are increasingly determined to move from dependency to interdependence, from imitation to innovation, and from adaptation to co-creation. Through processes centered on Indigenous research, South-South partnerships, and inclusive digitalization, the Global South is disengaging from a merely reproductive role in the global knowledge economy.

The Four-Pillar Framework—knowing, doing, being, and feeling—provides an integrative lens for understanding this transformation. "Knowing" involves critical insight into historical differences between structural and sociopolitical contexts. "Doing" focuses on governance reforms, localized innovation, and skills formation. "Being" affirms epistemic identity and institutional autonomy. "Feeling" fosters solidarity and ethical responsibility for justice-oriented practice. Together, these dimensions outline a model of education that unites intellectual rigor with social compassion and moral imagination.

The future of education in the Global South will depend on how well systems convert these ideas into practice. Meaningful change is not merely about new policies or infrastructure; it is about tackling global injustices, recentering human dignity, and embedding ethical and cultural values into the core of learning. If successful, such efforts can transform Southern higher and vocational education sectors from sites of dependency into engines of knowledge creation and social progress. By engaging in dialogue and asserting authority over their knowledge, communities across the Global South—including historically marginalized groups—can work toward a fairer and more equitable world.